A psychological approach to risk perception

David Fellows | Feature | IIRSM Newsletter
14.03.2008

The range and scope of individual psychology is large and diverse and ranges from the almost mystical to clinical or work based psychology. Basic psychology contributes ideas and techniques to work psychology; it is a discipline that includes many different views of what a person is.

Some of those views contradict each other but most include need theories, which base their thinking on individual behaviour being dependent upon psychological needs. Work psychologists and clinical psychologists use theories and techniques from all areas of basic psychology; it is often termed applied psychology and is mainly used for solving problems.

Human nature

Sigmund Freud developed a psychoanalytical approach to human nature; he believed instinctive forces exerted their effect on psychological functioning, subconsciously.

He identified three facets of the psyche: Id: Ego: Superego. He believed these facets were in constant conflict and much of the conflict was unconscious.

Other later psychologists felt that Freud's drives were too few and simple. They felt ego was more powerful than he allowed and social behaviour was very important, Carl Jung was the most prominent of these later psychologists and many of his concepts have been taken up in trait-based approaches to personality and human needs (John Arnold et al. 1998. p27-30).

There are many books and papers available on the subject of human needs but the most notable was Abraham Maslow, he is quoted in Charles Handy 1999 (p33) within a chapter dedicated to the motivation to work.

Maslow offered a theory of human functioning in which he set out five needs in a pyramid fashion; he proposed that we strive to progress up the hierarchy - some as far as the pinnacle of self-actualisation. He also suggested that people would only move to satisfy a higher need once a lower need had been met. Those needs are:

• Self-actualisation: Fulfil one's potential.
  
• Esteem: Feel valued and respected by self and others.
  
• Belonging: Attachment to another person or group.
  
• Safety: Physical and psychological safety.
  
• Physiological: Food, drink, shelter, sex etc.

Those needs and Maslow's theory has some impact on behaviour within a work context, which is often a psychological extension of the family group. Within a work context, an individual may feel that their needs, as defined by Maslow, are not being met for the following reasons:

Psychological

Llow pay may supply a constant fear of being unable to accommodate these basic needs and may prevent the individual from progressing to the next level, preventing them from addressing those needs and providing dissatisfaction and de-motivating.

Safety

Lack of security in employment resulting from uncertainty in their company's financial position and ability to carry on trading, short term contract employment, agency work etc may provide fear that prevents enough safety.

Belonging

Sometimes called affiliation needs, the fulfilment of the needs at this level can be prevented by lack of team spirit or non-affiliation with a group and can be caused by employing the wrong type of person into an already cohesive group. Lack of communication, lack of consultation or praise prevents group bonding and team spirit causing dissatisfaction at this level; it is also one reason for high employee turnover.

It is generally accepted that different people are motivated to a different degree by each of these needs and may not need to address some of them in order, or even at all. Experience indicates that people follow different value patterns when finding satisfaction.

Many scholars have revisited and refined this work, further complicating or simplifying the original pyramid, dependant upon their own views or findings from their particular field or research. Aldefer was one of these, he modified Maslow's model and reduced the five categories to three needs: existence, relatedness (to others) and growth (personal).

There is no doubt that needs stimulate and motivate people to varying degrees, and that motivation is often associated with consequences which follow performance.

One factor which runs through the majority of work based theories is that the need to belong is very strong, this is why we require to have personal relationships and crave social bonds by becoming part of a society, group or team, it is one of our greatest motivational determinants.

Motivation

Further theories such as Porter and Lawler's Expectancy Model of motivation breaks down the components of motivation and relates them to individual ability and idea's of what they should do. There are three factors according to this approach, which lead to effective job performance.

The abilities and skills of the individual; the effort the individual is prepared to expend on the task; and what the individual thinks they should do. If an individual has not been given the abilities and skills to achieve a particular goal that person will not expend much energy towards what is perceived as an impossible goal.

This approach roughly coincides with the Health and Safety Guidance contained in HSG48 and HSG65 which states that human factors consist of: Individual: Organisation: and Job. Individual or personal factors within these publications encompass, mental attributes including habits, skills, personality and attitudes.

The point, which the HSG appears to take no cognisance of, is that the job or work may never be able to motivate an individual. The motivation may come from an expensive hobby that the money from work allows to be indulged; an individual can be just as committed and motivated from outside interests.

Attitudes

Attitudes are a person's predisposition to think, feel or behave in certain ways towards certain targets and are cognitive understandings that structure our social world and our place within it, John Arnold. et al. 1998 (p191-3).

Attitudes are difficult to change because of attention, understanding and perception issues, other indicators such as behaviour must be used to measure attitude, the difficulty is that relationship between attitudes and behaviour are not necessarily direct.

An attitude change may not lead to behaviour change and behaviour change can lead to a change in attitude, Festinger L. 1957. A mature individual's behaviour is generally considered to be stable, it is often how a person is remembered along with their personality with comments like "he was reliable", "she was dependable", their behaviour will usually be consistent under constant conditions. However, there are many underlying influences on an individual's behaviour. Allport and Odbert identified and incorporated several thousand-personality traits, which influence individual behaviour, Scarman 2001 (Module 1 p4-8).

The concept of human nature itself considers all the above influences but also includes instinct and the ability to perceive through thought processes, not just by experience. We are individuals who have a self-image, which is shaped by others treatment and attitudes towards us, therefore our personality constantly changes over time.

This is more evident in young individuals who are still experiencing diverse environments, their interaction increases their self-awareness and consequently, personality. Personality/behaviour is the manifestation of all our needs and influences and is the outer projection by which an individual is often perceived by others, rightly or wrongly. Having considered the needs, behaviours and human nature of individuals the next section will consider risk perception of those individuals.

Considering risk

The single word 'risk' is open to interpretation, according to your knowledge and understanding of the mechanics of risk. The general understanding of the word 'perception' is tainted by one's own knowledge and the context within which it is being used. I am therefore painfully aware that to put both words together to describe this phenomena within an occupational context and then to expound upon the subject within the confines of a few hundred words could be perceived to be foolhardy.

The subject itself is so large, and so interesting, that there are not many people who do not have an opinion upon the subject of behaviour - particularly other people's behaviour. The TV-viewing public appears to have a constant fascination with soaps and alleged reality shows, which is a manifestation of that interest in other people's behaviour.

Defining risk

Risk is the consideration of the severity and the probabilities or chance of occurrence. Lay people often misunderstand professionals when risk is under consideration.

One reason could be that risk is often used as if it was one entity, not as its explanation states, the consideration of two possibilities as cited within HSG L21. 1993, p3 namely: Risk therefore reflects both the likelihood that harm will occur and its severity or: Combination of the likelihood and consequence(s) of a specified hazardous event occurring (OHSAS 18001: 1999).

Studies show that inexperienced individuals' perception of risk is not in tune with reality and often varies from known accident history. There are many reasons for this; including emotional reactions, previous experience or lack of, hearsay or rumour.

Popular press often provides information that is used by the individual in the place of experience. This fact is often borne out by extreme public reaction to issues such as transport incidents and health epidemics that have more drama and can often result in blame being laid at the door of an organisation, corporation or government.

This is partly due to media dramatisation and the instant coverage that supplies endless images designed to shock and hold the interest of the viewer/reader.

Defining perception

Individual perception is, of course, unique to each individual. The term 'commonsense' is a worn-out phrase often heard from people prior to them knocking 'elf and safety'. Occasionally after an accident, I'm sorry to say, some professionals or managers can be heard to question why they did not use commonsense.

Within a health and safety professional context, commonsense cannot be presumed to exist. An individual's commonsense/perception is dependent upon their prior knowledge, abilities and needs, which defines their behaviour, shapes their attitudes, and is further refined by their own nature and their need to be part of a social group.

It is a fact that individuals regularly fall off cliffs or drown in the sea. But the public do not demand that the coast be fenced off - quite the reverse. Individuals often believe that other people get what they deserve. "The occasional death is inconvenient but acceptable, and easily forgotten, if it does not directly effect the individual" (John Arnold et al 1998, page 289).

Consider, if you will, a train incident resulting from a driver going through a red light. It does not invoke public indignation at his 'mistake', the public do not wish to be seen vilifying the individual. However, they are willing to vilify the company. The general view is that everyone is capable of making mistakes but to criticise another individual for making a mistake you are capable of making is tantamount to criticising yourself.

Determining a mistake

Mistakes are an important factor when considering risk and an individual's perception of that risk. The number of mistakes made, in an occupational context, is illustrated in HSG 48, in which it states that up to 80 per cent of accidents can be attributed to people.

It also supplies the following interpretation: "Mistakes are a more complex type of human error where we do the wrong thing believing it to be right. The failure involves our mental processes which control how we plan, assess information, make intentions and judge consequences."

The problem with the aforementioned standpoint is that it takes no cognisance of the individual's need for risk, without which, life would be boring. If, within a work environment, there were no risks whatsoever, most individuals would need to introduce some risk to provide interest, excitement, or even finish work early. This can satisfy needs on two levels:

• shortcut (risk) has to be taken (fork-lift driver operating at excessive speed)
  
• a reward is the result (early finish equals a cup of tea).

The driver has livened up his day, provided extra interest and possibly an adrenaline rush by speeding about. He has also received a reward for operating in a dangerous manner.

Once a risk is introduced, it can then be hard to determine whether an adverse incident was a mistake, or risk taking, a point made by John Adams (see further reading below): "If Nigel Mansell crashes at 180mph in his racing car, it is impossible to determine 'objectively' whether it was because he made a mistake or he was taking a risk."

It may be difficult to determine 'objectively' whether he was taking a risk, but the odds are he was. He was paid to, he needed to, he desired to. A further complication is human nature, which often ensures that familiarity breeds contempt; familiarity also reduces the perceived risk. Charles Handy states: "In general, the more competent someone feels the more likely he is to take risks in an area important to himself."  
  
Calculated risk-taking is the nature of racing and provides the excitement and adrenaline wished for, as a contender or spectator. Life, and work to a lesser extent, is the same − people require some risk to heighten their awareness and enjoyment of life (some more than others).

Perceptions of a particular risk will also change with time. In 10 years, Nigel Mansell may not take the aforementioned risks. He may no longer need the acclaim or adrenaline. He will certainly be older and will probably have different perceptions of risk and life in general.

His further considerations will alter his perceptions, the need will eventually be satisfied, and the risks being taken will be recalculated with a different formula and outcome. As John Adams states: "Slipping and falling on the ice is a game for children and an event with potentially fatal consequences for the elderly."

Don't underestimate risk

Lack of information, lack of understanding or communication failures and inexperience often result in faulty risk perceptions by individuals. The supply and type of information has to be tempered with the possibility of information overload. Excessive information often produces a catatonic response in an individual. One has to accept that information on risk must be qualitative.

A need for qualitative information regarding perception is further endorsed by various theories. Freud said no information gets from the unconscious into the awareness without passing through sensors, which select and distort information.

Individual perception of risk must also be considered within the context of the group or team that the individual works in. The reason for this is that the majority of people need to be part of a team or group and the group's ability to alter individual perception of risk should not be underestimated.

Lack of information, lack of understanding or communication failures and inexperience, often results in faulty risk perceptions by individuals. The supply and type of information has to be tempered with the possibility of information overload, in the author's experience excessive information often produces a catatonic response in an individual.

A need for qualitative information regarding perception is further endorsed by various theories. Freud said no information gets from the unconscious into awareness without passing through censors which select and distort information.

Donald Broadbent in 1958 further considered these filters and felt they were needed to aid the mind to decide what information is irrelevant, which should go into short term memory (which is beneath the perception level), or into long term memory. He further felt that if too much information got through the result would be anxiety and stress. Daniel Goleman 1997 p59-65

Individual perception of risk must also be considered within the context of the group or team that the individual works in. The reason for this is that the majority of people need to be part of a team or group and the group's ability to alter individual perception of risk should not be underestimated.

"Different groups tend to evolve their own, unique ways of getting new members to conform together with the surprising degree of conformity that they tend to obtain." Rollinson et al 1998 p298.

From individuals to a team

Individuals understanding of group working can be further complicated by an apparent juxtaposition of opposite values often perpetuated by trainers and employers.

Employers ask for team abilities, constantly stress the need for team working and strive for the attendant synergy, yet many employees are assessed on, congratulated and rewarded for, their individual performance.

A typical example of stating a standard or behaviour pattern, then rewarding another. A point which is not accepted by Rollinson in the statement below:
"Work organisations give strong emphasis on individual performance but evaluate it in terms of being a good team player."  Rollinson et al 1998 p297

Further to the team exerting its influence on the individual, and the individual altering their parameters to fit into the team, is the phenomena called group think. Group think, is the synergistic effect of a group which is highly cohesive and isolated with leaders operating different styles, they can and will make decisions which are contrary to common knowledge and good practice.

Kerry Hinman proposed that the leadership styles of some cohesive groups can cause a faulty decision making process which can lead to incidents such as the Challenger Disaster. It is now appropriate to move onto the next section that will consider how an individual's needs and perceptions may influence organisational health and safety strategy.

Employees influence how a company functions, how it thinks, and how it learns to survive, it is therefore not surprising that their needs, behaviours and perceptions will dictate how a company reacts to those requirements when considering its health and safety strategy.

Models describing individual behaviours can clarify the driving forces that determine individual actions, they can also help to choose an organisation health and safety strategy, the following quote agrees with this standpoint.

"Personality and behaviour are key determinants in risk management because the way in which individuals respond to risk situations will define both organisational risk levels and which risk mitigation measures are likely to be the most acceptable and/or most effective." Scarman. 2001 Module 1 p4-5

Within a company's health and safety strategy, there must be a requirement for discipline, without stated standards there cannot be trust or understanding, people are more likely to adopt a logical thought process approach when they expect to be held accountable for their actions.

John Arnold. et al. 1998. p301. Individuals have the ability to wrongly justify their actions to themselves and the world at large; this is summed up within Handy 1999 in box 2.8 p54 in which he quotes from Tolstoy's, Resurrection.

"Men who have been placed by fate and their own sins or mistake in a certain position, however irregular that position may be, adopt a view of life as a whole which makes their position appear to them good and respectable."

An organisation has to have a health and safety strategy, which takes into account the needs and individuality of employees, the needs and individuality of groups, along with the recognition that their individuality requires. The company message and ideals require to be delivered in different ways, posters, training, memos, verbally etc to take into account differing abilities and preferences within their learning styles.

It is important to remember that attempts to change people's attitudes to something they experience personally and often (such as work) solely through verbal persuasion are unlikely to be successful. John Arnold et al 1998. p196.

The 'organisation's' message further requires to be given consistently by everyone and must be constantly repeated until understood and accepted. This is a concept which is given further weight by John Arnold et al 1998 p199 in which he quotes Arkes et al. who showed that repeating a statement caused it to be judged truer by those who hear it.

The personality of a group, shift, or department, must also be considered, they often have a personality which is the sum of all the members' interaction. Group roles and the suitability of individuals to join a group has been studied by Belbin 1981-1993 he believed effective and creative teams require a balanced mix of individual characteristics, so that the positive attributes of each person will compliment those of others. Derek Rollinson et al p324

Different types of work also require different attitudes; jobs should be allocated in such a way as to satisfy personal needs and vocational personality as developed by John Holland. 1985. Job enrichment should be a high priority using motivating and hygiene factors as proposed by Herzberg.

Family values often influence the way an organisation structures the treatment of employees, an employee who perceives the organisation to be family orientated will tend to be satisfied in the job, regular, punctual, loyal and a good team member. Miller and Form 1964

Governing behaviour

In conclusion, a different "behavioural theory" is required for each firm, each individual, and each group within an organisation. As with any strategy, an organisation requires to clearly define where it is and where it wishes to go, before being able to decide how to get there. The strategy requires total management commitment it also needs to consider every available tool to achieve their objectives.

An individual learns about the rules governing behaviour through social interaction and group interaction, they spend a great deal of time at work and many of their needs have to be addressed by the organisation which must encourage the development and education of its employees.

Most importantly management must be educated to a stated minimum level, that level should include knowledge of individual needs, perceptions and their motivators, including their own, they also need to take care not to use stereotyping when forming expectations of people. Without this knowledge/ability, a satisfactory organisational approach to people management or health and safety management is not possible.

A work group is like a family and consists of individuals with some common interests. Some individuals are content with and even prefer subordinate positions at work all their lives but priorities are sometimes altered with age and knowledge, an individual may appear to change their personality and require promotion.

Life in business is like life outside; it requires continuous social adjustments by the individual and more importantly by the company, this fact shows that a company's health and safety strategy is a constantly moving target, which must be regularly reviewed and adjusted. The strategy must also take cognisance of the fact that individuals require room to manoeuvre and grow within their environment, but just as importantly, require rules and parameters pre-defined so they know where they are in relation to that environment.

Further reading

Wells, J E N: A Cancer in Modern Mortality (a commissioned paper on behalf of the Chemical Industries Association) available from White Crescent Press Ltd.

HSG 65 2000: Successful Health and Safety Management is available from HSE Books, Sudbury.

Adams, John (1995) Risk is available from London UCL Press.

Arnold John, Cooper L Cary, Robertson T Ivan (1998) Work Psychology understanding human behaviour in the workplace (Third edition) is available from Pearson Education Limited.

Handy, Charles 1999: Understanding Organisations (Fourth Edition) is available from Clays Ltd, St Ives.

HSG48 1999: Reducing error and influencing behaviour (Second edition) is available from HSE Books, Sudbury.

Hinman, Kerry: Paper on The Challenger Disaster and Groupthink is available from www.bsc.edu/programs/leadershipstudies/challenger.htm